In the U.S., there will soon be more people over 65 than there are under 18 — and it’s not just lifespan that’s improving, it’s “healthspan” too. Unfortunately, the American approach to aging is stuck in the 20th century. In less than an hour, we try to unstick it. (Part three of a three-part series, “Cradle to Grave.”)

• SOURCES:
  • James Chappel, professor of history at Duke University.
  • Katy Fike, co-founder of Aging 2.0 and managing partner of Generator Ventures.
  • Kristen Fortney, co-founder and C.E.O. of BioAge.
  • Celine Halioua, founder and C.E.O. of Loyal.
  • Kyla Scanlon, economic commentator.
  • Andrew Scott, professor of economics at London Business School.

• RESOURCES:
  • In This Economy?: How Money & Markets Really Work, by Kyla Scanlon (2024).
  • Golden Years: How Americans Invented and Reinvented Old Age, by James Chappel (2024).
  • The Longevity Imperative: How to Build a Healthier and More Productive Society to Support Our Longer Lives, by Andrew Scott (2024).

• EXTRAS:
  • "Off Leash," by The Freakonomics Radio Network (2022).
  • "Are You Ready for a Glorious Sunset?" by Freakonomics Radio (2015).

In this episode from 2013, we look at whether spite pays — and if it even exists.

• SOURCES:
  • Benedikt Herrmann, research officer at the European Commission.
  • Steve Levitt, co-author of Freakonomics and host of People I (Mostly) Admire.
  • Dave O'Connor, president of Times Studios.
  • Lisi Oliver, professor of English at Louisiana State University.
  • E.O. Wilson, naturalist and university research professor emeritus at Harvard University.

• RESOURCES:
  • You Don't Know Bo: The Legend of Bo Jackson, documentary (2012).
  • "Amputation of the nose throughout history," by G. Sperati (ACTA Otorhinolaryngologica Italica, 2009).
  • "The Appearance of Homo Rivalis: Social Preferences and the Nature of Rent Seeking," by Benedikt Herrmann and Henrik Orzen (Center for Decision Research and Experimental Economics, 2008).

• EXTRAS:
  • "What It’s Like to Be Middle-Aged (in the Middle Ages)," by Freakonomics Radio (2025).

The simplicity of life back then is appealing today, as long as you don’t mind Church hegemony, the occasional plague, trial by gossip — and the lack of ibuprofen. (Part two of a three-part series, “Cradle to Grave.”)

• SOURCES:
  • Jordan Cavalier, performer at the New Jersey Renaissance Faire.
  • Matt Schwarz, harpist at the New Jersey Renaissance Faire.
  • Phillipp Schofield, professor of history at Aberystywth University.
  • Neslihan Şenocak, professor of history at Columbia University.

• RESOURCES:
  • A People's Church: Medieval Italy and Christianity, 1050–1300, co-edited by Agostino Paravicini Bagliani and Neslihan Şenocak (2023).
  • The Routledge Handbook of Medieval Rural Life, edited by Miriam Müller with a contribution by Phillip Schofield (2021).
  • Monty Python and the Holy Grail, film (1975).

• EXTRAS:
  • "Are You Having a Midlife Crisis?" by No Stupid Questions (2022).